Introduction:

 

I arrived at my topic through a long process of reeling myself in. Originally, I had a very broad, but at the same time, in depth question of what Permaculture here in Oaxaca consisted of, and then a plan to create a permaculture design for a specific place. I came to realize that I could not study something new though a framework that I am already familiar with and had certain expectations of. Through the process of learning about community, culture and change here, I felt that this would also be what inappropriate to do, and I did not want to give the impression I was trying to change or impose anything on the people here. I also realized that the scope of my project was beyond what I realistically could do in the time and space available to me. It took me quite a while to recognize that I had to slim it down to a single focus on something I wanted to explore in depth here. Because I wanted to create a base for which the Permaculture fundamentals and methods of design could be applied, I came to the conclusion that I would study the vegetation and ecology of Oaxaca, and outline specific plants that I would study in depth. The plants I chose are meant to represent the ecology of Oaxaca specifically, and could be incorporated into a tropical or desert based permaculture design through their multiple functions and plant associations. This really developed through my constant observation of the vegetation within the city, my own home-stay as well as others, and in the villages and sites we have visited. I recognized that there is a significant presence of functional plants in even the urban landscape, and that their presence could potentially play a positive role in the food system, food security and health here.

 

 

Over Arching Question:

 

What plants are ecologically and culturally significant in Oaxaca?

 

 Evidence of my learning:

 

A photo-essay plant catalog, documenting which plants I studied in depth, and what I learned about them. I chose plants that I was completely unfamiliar with and only learned about after coming here, that I recognized as functional within this culture and food system. I will incorporate pictures from the botanical garden as well as pictures of vegetation that I have noticed growing around the city.

 

Resources utilized:

 

Case, R.J., Tucker, A.O., Maciarello, M.J., & Wheeler, K.A. (n.d.). Chemistry and ethnobotany of commercial incense copals, copal blanco, copal oro and copal negro of north america. Economic Ethnobotany , 57. Retrieved from www.springerlink.com/index/73805332Q5767660.pdf

 

Davis, D. (2003, May). Ancient medicinal practices still popular in mexico. Retrieved from http://www.spanishlink.org/study/news_ancient.html

 

Minnis, P.E. (2000). Ethnobotany: a reader. University of Oklahoma Press.

 

Nokes, J. (2007, June 18). Human flower project:jardín etnobotanico de oaxaca. Retrieved from http://www.humanflowerproject.com/index.php/weblog/comments/jardin_etnobotanico_de_oaxaca_welcoming/

 

Nugent, J. (1999). Permaculture plants, agaves and cacti. Australia: Sustainable Agriculture Research Institute.

 

Nugent, J, & Boniface, J. (2004). Permaculture plants: a selection. Permanent Publishing.

 

PFAF, . (2010). Plants for a future. Retrieved from http://www.pfaf.org/user/edibleuses.aspx

 

Conversations that informed my study:

 

San Andrés de Huayápam  Permaculture Center tour

Ejutla Permaculture center tour

Working with the school garden project

Speaking with Carolina

Conversations with the farmers in Apoala

Speaking with Juan Carlos in Teotitlan

 

How my topic relates to community, culture, and/or place:

 

My topic relates to the program of culture, community and change in Oaxaca though the cultural significance of certain plants in Oaxacan communities. This collection of plants represents traditional ecological roots as well as a resistance to change through their continued use. The traditional botanical and ecological knowledge here is rich, and unfortunately is at risk of being lost. The urbanization of the population and the modernization of agriculture are stamping out the need to retain this knowledge and thus, people become sucked into the mechanized agricultural, centralized food and pharmaceutical systems. I believe through the promotion of alternative agriculture and medicine, and the continued education on plant uses, that many people can and would prefer to resist reliance on an expensive third party for their food and health. From our observations here, it is clear that community strength is based on communal activities such as farming, gardening, weaving, carving etc. These practices are what have created the social fabrics of Oaxaca, and supported their cultural traditions. Change is apparent through the increased migration of people to the north and into urban centers, due to the lack of work, which was previously agricultural based. In short, I hope to create a basic guideline of ecological knowledge that would be useful to these communities to utilize to resist change, centralization and urbanization if they choose.

 

 

How I explored my topic:

 

I explored my topic by keeping mental and written notes on the vegetation I have seen around the state of Oaxaca. I have utilized every opportunity to engage in learning about the local ecology and agriculture on each of our trips and around the city. As I was developing my project idea, I was constantly aware of the vegetation around me, and eventually I began to recognize the role and relationship some plants play within Oaxacan communities, and my study took on an ethnobotanical theme. I also took multiple tours of the Botanical Gardens of Santo Domingo, and interacting with my guides. I have also spent some time in the gardens library. I collected information through conversation with people, direct observations as well academic resources.

 

 

 

Timeline:

 

I began my research by collecting as many text sources as possible. Because I was originally on a different path, and my topic has evolved constantly up to this point, I have cycles through this stage multiple times through out the entire semester.

 

January: In San Andrés de Huayápam, I kept note of some of the plants they used in their Permaculture center, for what and why. I also discovered the Copal tree through the demonstration of alebrijes carving and painting in San Martin Tilcajate. I was interested in the tree as a possible addition to a Permaculture design because of its unique and functional uses, but also because it seemed so culturally important.

 

February: I was introduced to the natural dye plants in Santa Ana del Valle, and became particularly interested in thinking about what a Permaculture dye garden could consist of, and I began to study the plants and animal materials utilized. I also noted that the medicine woman we visited used a number of herbs as well as copal. I really began to think about how certain plants were completely embedded in traditional communities here, and how they serve multiple uses. I was introduced to the botanical gardens on our initial tour with Ron’s wife in February.  Since then I have returned a few times to take more notes on plants as well as pictures. Although I originally planned to apply that information differently, it has become a great resource.

 

March: During my village stay with the Dii Dauu Cooperative in Teotitlan del Valle, I learned much more in depth about the importance of the dye crops, as well as their other edible and medicinal uses. I had a really informative conversation with  Juan Carlos, the president of the cooperative who shares my interest in Permaculture. From him, I learned about the cultural value of these plants from a Oaxacanos point of view, as well their more practical values. Later, in Apoala, I collected information on quelites, or wild greens.  I began to draw some connections to earlier observations from our trips as well as to our trip to La Neveria in the Sierra Norte.  This is when I began to finally let go of my Permaculture bases questions, and move more towards trying to build my understanding of traditional agriculture. A few of our meals there included foraged plants including watercress and agave flower buds. I started to work my head around how these plants, and the practice of collecting less intentional vegetation was relevant to culture, diet and health here.

 

April:  I have consolidated my ideas and different paths of research into my final overarching question. I wanted to incorporate aspects of ethnobotany and permaculture, and have put together a catalog of plants that have an intimate relationship with Oaxacan communities, and would serve well in a Permaculture design.

 

Multifunctional and Culturally Significant Plants of Oaxaca:

 

 

Quelites

Semi-wild, edible, herbaceous plants. Depending on the region and resources available, what is considered a quelite varies, but many people still hold on to the pre-Hispanic practices of foraging some form of local wild edibles.

Edible uses:

Epazote- Very common in Oaxacan cuisine. It is often used to prepare beans, or pressed into quesadillas. “An epazote leaf (chenopodium ambrosioides) is often added to tortilla dishes such as quesadillas for its flavor and anti-parasitical properties.” (Davis 2003)

Berro (Watercress)- Used in soups and salads.

Quelites can provide a food source after the initial growing period. Hail during July and August can destroy young maize plants, as well as other pests at other states of growth, so the edible greens can be collected to fill the food void. (Minnis 2000. p 203) 100g of Quelites provide sufficient calcium, vitamin A thiamine, riboflavin and vitamin c to me the RDA standards for the United States. (Minnis, 2000. p 204)

Medicinal uses: “Berro leaves applied to the temples to ease headaches” (Davis 2003) Epazote has anti-parasitical and anti-gas properties.

Cultural uses: Over 120 recognized species of quelites (Minnis, 2000. p 198)- 10 consumed regularly in the Sierras and all found in anthropogenic communities (Minnis, 2000. p 199) Pre-Hispanic practice of foraging still practiced by some today.

Ecological uses: Because they are collected young, so the shallow rooted quelites will not be competing for resources with the deeper rooted maize or other crops. Weeds also provide other ecological benefits such as protection for soil from erosion, dispersion of food resourced for various predators.  (Minnis, 2000. P 207)

Nopales

Opuntia ficus-indica

Cultural uses: Significant in Mexican cuisine, pre-Hispanic core ingredient

Edible uses: The leaves, or paddles are commonly eaten in soups, salads, with tortillas and in many other dishes. “Fresh nopales, the thick leaf or paddle of the prickly pear cactus is used daily in egg and salad dishes and known to be an effective control of blood sugar and cholesterol levels. The inexpensive and nutritional nopal is also one of the many ice-cream flavors available in Mexico.” (Davis 2003) The paddles and fruit are an important source of water. Tuna, the edible fruits are used in traditional nieve flavoring. (Nugent 1999 P 13)

Medicinal uses: “The flowers and stems are antispasmodic, diuretic and emollient. The split stems have been bound around injured limbs as a first aid measure. The flowers are astringent and are used to reduce bleeding and treat problems of the gastro-intestinal tract, especially diarrhea, colitis and irritable bowel syndrome. The flowers are also used in the treatment of an enlarged prostate gland.” (PFAF, 2010)

Ecological uses: Provide a habitat for the Cochineal beetle, which has relevant cultural significance as the natural base for red wool dyes. Cochineal beetle (actually a woolly aphid) Dactylopius apunita (Nugent, 1999) It can also be used as a natural fence. The gel like fluid can also be mixed with cal to create a plaster or whitewash mixture. They perform crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), which means they perform respiration at night making them good for companions to indoor plants that release oxygen during the day.  (Nugent, 1999. p 10)

Mexican Marigold or Pericon

Edible uses:Its flowers and leaves are used to season corn and chayote, and to flavor drinks and liquors. (Davis 2003) 

Medicinal uses: Used as a tonic tea to treat diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion, vomiting, rheumatism, asthma, typhoid, varicose veins and colds. Smoke from the burning plant is used to ward off mosquitoes. It is also used as an insecticide.  (Davis 2003)

Cultural uses: Used in weaving communities such as Santa Ana del Valle or Teotitlan del Valle, as a dye. The dye produced can be a yellowish green. Also burned for religious and ceremonial purposes. (Davis 2003)
 

Ecological uses: Secretions from the roots of growing plants have an insecticidal effect on the soil, effective against nematodes and to some extent against keeled slugs. They also have an effect against some persistent weeds. The growing plant also has a repellent effect on various insect pests such as the asparagus beetle and bean weevils. The dried plant is burnt as incense and to repel insects. (PFAF, 2010)

Jicama
Pachyrrhizus erosus

Edible uses: Starchy root vegetable. Served raw, often with lime and chile. Edible beans, but must be well cooked to remove toxins.

Ecological function: Leguminous, fixes atmospheric nitrogen. Jicama also contains rotenone, the active ingredient in the insecticide "derris", and it has the potential to be used as an insecticide. The insecticide is relatively safe because it does not affect warm-blooded animals and also breaks down into harmless substances with 24 hours of being used. It does, however, kill some beneficial insects and is also toxic to fish and amphibians.(PFAF, 2010)

Medicinal uses: Jicama is a safe source of water. The seeds may be poisonous; oil can be extracted that functions well as a laxative.

 

 

Huaje

Leucaena leucocephala

Cultural uses: The tree for which Oaxaca is named. “The familiar name of the tree comes from the way its pods resemble the glossy dark red pods of the chile guajillo.” (Nokes 2007)

Edible uses: The beans from the seed pods are edible raw or cooked, and have a unique garlic like flavor, and are high in protein. They are used in the traditional dish Huaxmole.

Ecological function: A leguminous, atmospheric nitrogen-fixing tree.Beans make good fodder for ruminant grazers.

Copal           

Bursera bipinnata (Female)

Bursera glabrifolia (male)

Medicinal uses: disinfectant, A tea of the bark is taken to relieve dysentery. Pulverized and dissolved in water it can be used as one of the many treatments for diarrhea. The resin is also used to plug tooth cavities. In Oaxaca, a poultice of copal has been used for boils or tumors; mixed with milk and egg yoke, copal has been used to treat pneumonia. The resin can be steeped in tequila or grain alcohol to make a tincture for gum sores, cold sores and abscessed teeth. The dried stems and leaves are used in a tea to relieve painful urination and as a stimulating expectorant for bronchitis and chest colds, while the gum has been used to treat venereal diseases.  A tea of the bark is drunk for malaria and liver inflammations and a potion of the bark and fruit shell is drunk for jaundice. (Case et al,)

Ecological uses: Insecticide, leguminous and thus nitrogen fixing,  

 “Native woody plants often act as nurse trees, providing protection or herbs and shrubs, many of which are used by the local people” (Martin, 1995. p 226)

Cultural Uses: Wood used in traditional carving. Dyes bases can also be made from the bark. The resin it produces is dried into sacred incense. The wax is burned in the houses to drive away insects, and when freshly made serves as an all-purpose solder or glue. (Case et al,)

Castor Plant

Ricinus communis

Ecological and practical function: Seeds are poisonous but the source of castor oil- used in mechanics and on leathers,  in soap, candles, cosmetics, finish of cotton, silk, linen materials and in wood oils. Oil cake valued as manure, stems useful in making paper, and the leaves are a food source for silk worms and bee forage. Also used as pesticide (observed during tomato greenhouse tour) A fiber for making ropes is obtained from the stems. The growing plant is said to repel flies and mosquitoes. The leaves have insecticidal properties, and ward away common garden rodents. (PFAF, 2010)

Medicinal uses: The seed is anthelmintic, cathartic, emollient, laxative, purgative. It is rubbed on the temple to treat headache and is also powdered and applied to abscesses and various skin infections. It is used in the treatment of indigestion and as a purgative. A decoction of the leaves and roots is antitussive, discutient and expectorant. The leaves are used as a poultice to relieve headaches and treat boils. (PFAF, 2010)

Edible uses: toxic, and non-edible

Amaranth

Edible uses: Leaves -raw or cooked are rich in vitamins and minerals, and can be used like spinach.  Seed - raw or cooked, are very small but very nutritious. The seed can be ground into a flour or can be cooked whole. A good alternative grain.

Cultural significance: First cultivated here, but was somewhat lost after Cortez ended its production. It is not being re-integrated into the diet. Laegria is a traditional sweet dish made with Amaranth

Medicinal uses: Extremely nutritious, can help treat malnourishment.
“A fluid extract of the plant is used as an astringent internally in the treatment of ulcerated mouths and throats, externally as a wash for ulcers and sores. The juice of the roots is used externally to relieve headaches. The plant has a folk reputation for being effective in the treatment of tumors and warts.” (PFAF, 2010)

Other uses: Yellow and green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant. Glue is made from the plant.

Agave

Said to have over 400 uses in Mexico (Nugent, 1999. p 13)

Edible uses: Medicinal uses: Sap is used as a treatment of diarrhea and dysentery. The sap is also antiseptic, diaphoretic, diuretic and laxative and can be taken internally to check the growth of putrefactive bacteria in the stomach and intestines. An infusion of the chopped leaf is purgative and the juice of the leaves can help alleviate bruising. Water in which agave fiber has been soaked for a day can be used as a scalp disinfectant and tonic in cases of falling hair. Steroid drug precursors are obtained from the leaves. A gum from the root and leaf is used in the treatment of toothache. (PFAF, 2010)

Cultural uses: The cultivation and processing of agave for regional alcoholic drinks have a significant cultural value. Pulque and mescal are traditional and celebratory drinks that are also thought to have medicinal properties.

Practical uses: The plant contains saponins. It is likely that the root is the best source of the saponins that are used to make a soap. The fibrous leaves are used to make rope and coarse fabrics or nets. A paper can also be made from the leaves. The thorns on the leaves are used as pins and needle[. The dried flowering stems are used as a waterproof thatch. (PFAF, 2010)

Ecological uses: The plants are used in land-reclamation schemes in arid areas of the world. (PFAF, 2010) They are also pollinated by bats and help support dwindling bat populations.

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Peer Review: